2024/04/01

【接地設計】 - 總等電位接駁和輔助接駁的區別 - Main Equipotential Bonding vs Supplementary Bonding

根據Code of Practice for the Electricity (Wiring) Regulations,總等電位接駁和輔助接駁是兩類保護導體,而Code 11C所列明的四類保護導體包括:

  1. 電路保護導體;(Circuit Protective Conductors (CPC))
  2. 總等電位接駁導體;(Main Equipotential Bonding Conductor)
  3. 輔助接駁導體;以及(Supplementary Bonding Conductor)
  4. 接地導體。(Earthing Conductors)
對於導體1、導體2和導體4,在實際佈綫過程中十分常見。今天,我們就來探討下什麽是輔助接駁導體輔助接駁導體和總等電位接駁導體有什麽區別以及他們在實際工程中有哪些應用


Figure 11(1) of the CoP shows the application of the above four types of protective conductors and their interrelationships.


什麽是等電位接駁(Equipotential Bonding)?

在詳細介紹輔助接駁(Supplementary Bonding)的之前,我們應先了解等電位接駁(Equipotential Bonding)。



等電位接駁是在每一裝置上,所有非電氣裝置金屬部分須用總等電位接駁導體連接至總接地終端,使形成等電位區域。


如上圖可以看出,假設電煮食爐發生故障fault情況時,fault電流會經過earth fault流入main earthing terminal,這時Consumer unit (fuseboard)若有相應的earth fault保護裝置即會立即跳脫,fault即被消除。但亦有機會保護裝置未啓動(有可能坏左,有可能漏電電流未超過跳脫下限),那麽此時fault不會消失。此刻,若有人一隻手摸到電爐一隻手摸到金屬水喉。那麽如下情況即會發生:

  • 假設此時未做金屬水喉的Equipotential Bonding,那麽人一隻手電勢為220V,另一隻手電勢幾乎為0V。電勢差會產生電流,電流經過人發生電擊,釀成悲劇。
  • 但此時如果有做金屬水喉的Equipotential Bonding,因爲有Equipotential Bonding的導體將電爐與水喉連通。那麽,由於有fault,在水喉處的電勢也會幾乎為220V(理想情況下,若導體連接穩固且電阻非常小)。此時,人的左右手電勢差幾乎爲零(或相差很小)。因此,發生電擊的几率大大被降低。

由此可見Equipotential Bonding是在電力安全和保護中是非常重要的一環。


什麽是總等電位接駁(Main Equipotential Bonding)?

總等電位接駁導體主要是透過把以下非電氣裝置金屬部分包括:
  • 總水喉管(main water pipes)、
  • 氣體裝置喉管(gas installation pipes)、
  • 其他設備的喉管及管通(other service pipes and ducting)、
  • 中央暖氣及空氣調節系統的上升喉管及管通(risers and ducting of central heating and air-conditioning systems),
  • 以及結構骨架的外露金屬部分(exposed metallic parts of structural framework)

連接至總接地終端,使形成等電位區域,令電位差在這些等電位區域內的非電氣裝置金屬部分於任何時候都等於零,從而減低觸電的機會。任何氣體或供水喉管的總等電位接駁,應盡量接近這些喉管接入樓宇的位置。


什麽是輔助接駁(Supplementary Bonding)?

上面闡述了什麽是縂等電位接駁。輔助接駁其實也是一種等電位接駁,輔助接駁導體可說是總等電位接駁導體的延續,其主要功能是將等電位區域伸延。因爲除了有連續性的金屬管道,喉管以外,建築内仍有很多零散的金屬部件、器具或者材料。

根據守則Code 11F(a),在總等電位接駁所形成的區域之內,應在符合下列情況的金屬部分上個別作輔助等電位接駁,使維持等電位區域:

  1. 非電氣裝置金屬部分( extraneous conductive parts);
  2. 與外露非帶電金屬部分或其他非電氣裝置金屬部分可同時接觸得到(Note 1) (Simultaneously accessible with exposed conductive parts or  other extraneous conductive parts);
  3. 並非採用永久可靠,而且具極低阻抗的金屬對金屬接頭作電氣性的總等電位接駁。(Not electrically connected to the main equipotential bonding by permanent and reliable metal-to-metal joints of negligible impedance.);

簡單來說,輔助接駁是連接非電氣裝置金屬部分及其附近分隔距離不超過2米的外露非帶電金屬部分或其他非電氣裝置金屬部分藉以防止它們之間出現危險的電位差

另外,以上所提到的非電氣裝置金屬部分也有可能是水喉管、氣體裝置喉管、其他設備的喉管及管通、中央暖氣及空氣調節系統的上升喉管及管通和結構骨架的外露金屬部分,但通常强調的是末端部分。

另外還有外露非帶電金屬部分,例如:
  • 浴室金屬掛架
  • 金屬窗框
  • 金屬門柄
  • 金屬盥洗盤
  • 金屬扶手
  • 金屬支架等等

但根據守則Code 11F(b),以上例子如果符合以下規定可以豁免認定爲“非電氣裝置金屬部分”,從而不必提供輔助接駁(Supplementary Bonding)。即:

根據守則Code 11F(b),應量度導電部分和總接地終端之間的絕緣電阻。就標稱供電電壓為220伏特的典型單相供電系統而言,若在最惡劣的情況下(例如在濕度高的環境下),量度所得的電阻仍大於45 000歐姆(Note 2),則該金屬部分便可界定為不屬於非電氣裝置金屬部分。(這裏解釋一下,因爲電阻過大,所產生的電勢差就越大,發生電擊的機率和嚴重程度就越高)因此,註冊電業承辦商及註冊電業工程人員可根據有關守則來決定是否需要為浴室金屬掛架、金屬窗框或金屬門柄連接輔助接駁。

Note 1
                分隔距離不超過2米,通常被視為可同時接觸到的距離。
Note 2
                此數值是根據IEC 60479-1:2005計算得來的約數。

2024/03/30

【BIM】CCBM 學習筆記 (Part 2) - 建築資訊模型 Building information modeling (BIM) - Collaboration + Integration, CDE Concept, Digital Info Management, Software

LOIN 或 "資訊需求級別"(Level of Information Need)是一個框架,用於將 BIM 項目中與幾何、信息和文檔相關的要求進行分組。它提供了一種結構化的方法來定義模型元素的細節、尺寸、位置、外觀、參數行為、準確性和可靠性。通過了解 LOIN,團隊可以溝通並自動檢查這些要求,從而實現更高效的協作和項目交付。


Level of Detail (LoD)

  • PAS 1192-2 (BS EN ISO 19650) Concept of level of definition:
    • Level of model detail: the description of graphical content of models at each of the stages
    • Level of model information: the description of non-graphical content of models at each stages defines
      • LOD 100 (Concept), 
      • LOD 200 (Design Development)
      • LOD 300 (Documentation)
      • LOD 400 (Construction)
      • LOD 500 (Facilities management)

  • Level of Detail is essentially how much detail is included in the model element.
  • LOD is the completeness of information
  • LOD = get appropriate information at appropriate time

Level of Information Need (LOIN)
  • Concept of Level of Information Need (LOIN): Collective term used to describe model elements (NOT models as a whole), including ‘LOD-G’, ‘LOD-I’ and 'DOC’
    • Level of Graphics (LOD-G): description of graphical content of objects at each stage
    • Level of Information (LOD-I): description of properties of objects at each stage defines
    • Level of Documentation (DOC): description of documentation associated with specific BIM uses.
    • CIC BIM Standards Page 44 Section 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4




Common Data Environment (CDE)

Working within a single environment; Provision of a single environment to store shared asset data and information, accessible to all individuals who are required to produce, use and maintain it.

在一個單一的環境中工作;提供一個單一的環境來存儲共享的資產數據和信息,所有需要制作、使用和維護這些數據和信息的人都可以訪問這些數據和信息。

Definitions:
  • This is a repository, for example, a project extranet or electronic document.
  • A suitable information hierarchy should be agreed.
  • Single source of information for any given project
  • Used to collect, manage and disseminate all relevant approved project documents for multi-disciplinary teams in a managed process.
  • A CDE may use a project server, an extranet, a file-based retrieval system or other suitable toolset.
  • A central repository where construction project information is housed
  • The contents of the CDE are not limited to assets created in a ‘BIM environment’. (唔一定只用做BIM應用)
  • Include documentation, graphical model and non-graphical assets.
  • In using a single source of information collaboration between project members should be enhanced, mistakes reduced and duplication avoided.

CDE Structure
  • Information Container-based Collaborative Working
  • providing a collaborative environment for sharing work and can be implemented in a number of ways
    • Work in progress
    • Client shared area
    • Published documentation
    • Archive

Benefits of a CDE

  • Time and cost-saving (共享資訊是完全協調的數據,無需檢查,也無需重發)
  • Get it right the first time (如果參與者的意見一致,生產資訊就應該在第一時間準確無誤)
  • Collaborative production of information (資訊用戶會使用最新的高質量共享資產數據)
  • Spatial Coordination (異地協調可以完全實現。任何地方,任何設備,任何人)

Limitation/consdierations of CDE
  • Comply with Organizational Information Requirements (OIR), Project Information Requirements (PIR)
  • Leverage industry standards(在不同的標準下取得平衡)
  • Reviewing existing infrastructure
  • System/platform considerations
  • Vendor considerations on varied CDE market offerings
  • Number of user accounts, data size 
  • Disaster recovery policy and requirements
  • Data ownership, maintenance, end life

Examples of Top Common Data Environments (CDE) for BIM
  1. Autodesk Construction Cloud (Initially known as BIM 360)
  2. Trimble Connect
  3. Bentley Projectwise
  4. Procore
  5. BIMPLUS

思考:Oracle Aconex 到底係唔係個CDE?

Oracle Aconex Construction Management
Aconex 管理端到端流程,消除協作障礙。可以在單一平台上確保整個建築工程項目生命周期中的團隊和流程緊密相連,同時收集完整的項目記錄。Aconex 通過不可更改的審核跟蹤來盡可能減少爭議,幫助您跟蹤項目成功交付和完成。

高度靈活的流程管理引擎
  • 使用完整的項目交付解決方案有效地管理整個項目生命周期中的端到端建設流程和工作流。Aconex 通過專用模塊為特定流程提供深度功能,包括模型協調、成本和現場流程。
消除協作障礙
  • 使用獨特的數據所有權模型在團隊之間建立聯系,充分提高整個項目的采用、協作和數據共享,從而在單一系統中創建完整的項目記錄。
不可更改的審計跟蹤
  • 追蹤和捕獲每個項目決策,從而確保團隊盡職負責並盡可能減少糾紛。
真正的通用數據環境
  • Aconex 基於統一中央平台 Oracle 通用數據環境 (CDE),可以連接團隊、流程和項目數據。它通過獨特的數據所有權模型和嚴格的安全協議建立信任,從而提高采用率,獲得更多項目數據和見解。
全面的設計建造解決方案
  • Aconex 非常適用於設計建造項目,可將設計和交付團隊緊密相連,促進協作和數據共享。高度可配置的流程管理可提供可見性和控制力,而內置的模型協調則將團隊、模型和數據連接起來。

BIM Software



BIM Dimensions and Popular BIM Application

  • 3D: (Spatial dimension)
    • Autodesk Revit
    • Graphisoft Archicad (Specialized in architecture design)
    • Tekla Structures (Specialized in structure modeling (RC modeling and steel structure modeling)
    • Solibri Model Checker
  • 4D: (Time dimension)
    • SYNCHRO Pro(4D, Site utilization planning)
    • Fuzor
  • 5D: (Costs dimension)
    • Vico Office(5D, Cost and cash flow capability, Bill of Quantities)
    • Glodon
    • iTwo 4.0 
  • 6D: (Sustainability dimension)
    • MTWO
    • Energy Analysis with Revit, Insight and Green Building Studio
  • 7D: (Maintenance dimension)
    • Archi bus
  • Infrastructure management:
    • Bentley 


Technology Trend
  • Cloud Platform
    • API - Application Programming Interface
  • Integration of BIM, GIS and loT
  • Laser Scanning and Photogrammetry
  • Low-cost Mobile Scanning with BIM
  • Integration of BIM and Indoor Positioning
    • as-built inspections and maintenance purposes
    • Implement fire evacuation
    • target localization and other building indoor services 
  • Integration of BIM and VR
    • Health & Safety Training 
    • Facilities Management
    •  Plant Operations
  • VR, BIM and Gaming Technologies
  • Augmented/Mixed Reality (AR/MR), OR/RFID
    • Table-top AR
    • QR code
    • Virtual installation sequence
    • using RFID guides
  • Integration of BIM and VDC/MiC/DfMA
    • Simulate the construction process
    • Reduce clashes
    • Improve time and cost management
  • BIM and A.I. for Standard Compliance Checking
  • Integration of BIM and Automation


2024/03/29

【BIM】CCBM 學習筆記 (Part 1) - 建築資訊模型 Building information modeling (BIM) - BIM Initiation, Concept, Standards, Info Management

建築資訊模型(Building Information Modeling,簡稱BIM)是建築學、工程學及土木工程的新工具,被定義成由完全和充足資訊構成以支援新產品開發管理,並可由電腦應用程式直接解釋的建築或建築工程資訊模型。 簡言之,即數位技術支撐的對建築環境的生命週期管理。 它是建築過程的數位展示方式來協助數位資訊交流及合作。


Digitalisation (數字化) vs Digitisation (數碼化)
  • 數字化(Digitalisation)是利用數字改善業務流程的過程。(更重要)
  • 數字化(Digitisation)是將信息從物理格式轉換為數字格式的過程。


Digital Document vs Digital Information
  • Information enriches a document. Document contains many information.
  • Document contains production process and periodicity. Information doesn’t contain these contents.

為什麽建造業需要數字化? 建造業面臨的挑戰
  • 覆雜性/規模 Complexity / Scale
  • 工期緊張 Tight Programme
  • 技術要求高 Technical Demanding
  • 團隊龐大 Large Team
  • 海量信息 Vast amount of information
  • 數據驅動決策 Data-Driven Decision Making

BIM Concept
  • BIM is a journey (Process), not a destination (End-product).

BIM Value (From PAS 1192): Project Information Model (PIM) + Asset Information Model (AIM)

Process:
信息管理 (Information management) -> 協同工作 (Collaborative working) -> 圖形和數據模型 (Graphical and data models ) -> 資產數據 (Asset data)


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Note: Information below from ChatGPT (AI)


BIM的價值:
  • 增強協作:BIM促進了項目各方之間的無縫協作。它整合了建築、結構和MEP(機械、電氣、管道)模型,使團隊能夠高效協同工作。
  • 改善決策:BIM提供了項目的整體視圖,有助於在整個生命周期內做出明智的決策。從設計到施工和維護,利益相關者可以分析數據並優化流程。
  • 成本和時間效率:BIM減少了返工,減少了沖突,並優化了施工流程。它有助於準確估算成本並增強項目進度安排。
  • 視覺呈現:BIM生成3D模型,使客戶、承包商和設計師更容易地可視化最終產品。
BIM的局限性:
  • 覆雜的實施:采用BIM需要轉變思維方式和工作流程。組織必須投資於培訓、軟件和硬件升級。
  • 數據質量和一致性:BIM依賴於準確的數據。不完整或不一致的信息可能導致錯誤。
  • 互操作性挑戰:在不同軟件平台之間集成BIM模型可能具有挑戰性。標準化至關重要。
  • 法律和合同問題:BIM合同需要明確定義責任、知識產權和責任。
BIM的挑戰:
  • 交易性業務流程演變:BIM顛覆了傳統工作流程。組織必須調整其流程,以有效利用BIM。
  • 數字設計信息的可計算性:確保各種BIM工具和平台之間無縫數據交換仍然是一個挑戰。
  • 有意義的數據互操作性:BIM模型應與其他系統(例如設施管理軟件)無縫通信。
  • 客戶需求和認知:雖然大型項目采用了BIM,但較小的項目通常缺乏客戶對其實施的需求 。
未來十年BIM的展望:
  • 廣泛采用:BIM將成為全球標準實踐,受到政府法規、行業認知和技術進步的推動。
  • 高級人工智能整合:BIM將融合人工智能,用於預測分析、優化和自動化決策。
  • 物聯網和智能城市:BIM將與物聯網集成,實時監控和維護智能建築和基礎設施。
  • 全生命周期管理:BIM的焦點將從設計和施工延伸到高效運營、維護和最終報廢的資產。

Note: Information above from ChatGPT (AI)
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HK & Global Context, BIM Standards & Guidelines


U.S. BIM Standard
  • National BIM Standard -United States
  • BIM Level 0 (1990) to Level 3 (2020)

UK BIM Adoption Strategy
  • Since 4th Apr 2016, BIM Level 2 is mandatory in government projects in the UK.
  • BIM Level 2: 
    • A fully co-ordinated design model (and an as-built digital representation)
    • A COBie (Construction Operations Building information exchange) database.
    • Drawings (and Existing Deliverables).
    • Government Soft Landings
  • BIM Level 2 Summary:
    • BS 1192:2007 Collaborative production of architectural, engineering and construction information - code of practice (+A2:2016)
    • PAS 1192-2:2013 Specification for information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using building information modelling
    • PAS 1192-3:2014  Specification for information management for the operational phase of assets using building information modelling
    • BS 1192-4:2014 Collaborative production of information - Fulfilling employers information exchange requirements using COBie. Code of practice
    • PAS 1192-5:2015 Specification for security-minded building information modelling, digital built environments and smart asset management
    • BS 8536-2:2016 Briefing for design and construction - Code of practice for asset management (Linear and geographical infrastructure)
    • Digital Plan of Works (DPoW)
    • Classification
    • CIC Commercial Suite

Hong Kong: Roadmap of BIM implementation in HK
  • 'Roadmap for BIM Strategic Implementation in Hong Kong’s Construction Industry' is published in 2014
  • Standard from HKHA (BIM standard manual, user guide, library components design guide and reference, project execution guide)
  • Standard from CIC
  • BD, DSD, WSD, ArchSD, CLP....

BIM Policy in HK
  • The enhancement of BIM workflow, requirements for adoption of Common Data Environment (CDE), BIM data harmonization and information security of project data are included.
  • Extends the scope of mandatory BIM uses and CCBC fulfils the requirements of a BIM Coordinator
  • Extends the scope of mandatory BIM uses and CCBM fulfils the requirements of a BIM Team Leader
  • Revises the scope of mandatory BIM uses
  • Mandate of BIM Use for Government Project
  • BIM forum LOD Specification
  • OpenBIM Data Exchange Standard
  • Importance of OPENBIM 

Global BIM Standards
  • BS ISO 55000: Asset management (PAS 55-2 & PAS 1192-3)
  • ISO 9001: Quality management systems - Requirements (PAS 1192-2)
  • ISO 19650: International BIM Standardisation
    • ISO 19650-1 BIM Concepts and principles (based on BS 1192) (Anticipated Nov 2018)
    • ISO 19650-2 BIM Delivery phase of assets (based on PAS 1192-2) (Anticipated Nov 2018) "
    • ISO 19650-3 Operational phase of assets (based on PAS 1192-3) (Anticipated 2020)
    • ISO 19650-5 Security-minded approach to information management (based on PAS 1192-5) (Anticipated 2020)


A - Start of delivery phase - transfer of relevant information from AIM to PIM
B - Progress development of the design intent model into the virtual construction model 
C - End of delivery phase - transfer of relevant information from PIM to AIM

Figure - Generic project and asset information management life cycle ISO 19650-1:2018(E)


Digital Information Management

A Perspective on Stages of Maturity of Analogue and Digital Information
  • Business layer
  • Information layer
  • Technology layer
  • Standards layer
Hierarchy of Level Information Requirements
  • Organisational Level - Organisational Information Requirements (OIR)
  • Asset Level - Asset Information Requirements (AIR) -> Asset Information Model (AIM)
  • Project Level - Employer’s Information Requirements (EIR) -> Project Information Model (PIM)


Information Delivery Cycle



Value of BIM Through-life
  • Stage 0 - Business case The Why? - OIR, AIR
  • Stage 1 - Brief - The How? - EIR
  • Stage 2 - Early design benefits and coordination - PIR
  • Stage 3 - Develop design/review BIM (PIM), better understanding of project
  • Stage 4 - Tech design materials and construction coordination
  • Stage 5 - Construction progress. Info gathering. Record progress
  • Stage 6 - Review BIM (AIM): client review as built
  • Stage 7 - Occupancy data. Collate info intelligently


Limitations of BIM Software

Industry Foundation Class (IFC) 
  • are the open and neutral data format for openBIM.
  • sharing information between different project team members and across software applications that are commonly used for design, construction, procurement, maintenance and operations.
  • registered by ISO as ISO/PAS 16739 and is currently in the process of becoming an official International Standard ISO/IS 16739. 
  • open, neutral and standardized specification for Building Information Models.

BIM Collaboration Format (BCF)
  • WhatsApp of BIM
  • Transferring XML formatted data
  • Send markup models, comments, tasks, attachments, screenshots from the model presenting the problem between all project members.

Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBie)
  • COBie is an information exchange specification
  • Deliver asset data as distinct from geometric information
  • In Jan 2019, UK National Annex within BS EN ISO 19650-2 states that non-geometric information exchanges in open data formats should be structured to COBie format.
  • No technology limitation
  • Can be exchanged by "Excel"!

The Role of Professional Engineers in BIM
  • Delivery of Information


  • Information Originator
    • BIM ≠ 3D CAD Drafting
    • BIM is a 3D model contains Professional Information
    • Professional Information is generated by Professionals (e.g. engineers)
    • Professional Engineers are Information Originators of Engineering Works
    • Technicians/BIM modellers input Professional Information to BIM and enable users to get the Information out from BIM to use

  • Information Owner
    • Information Owner can change from time-to-time when the Information Container changes State or the Information Delivery is accepted by the Appointing Party
    • Before the Information Delivery is accepted, Information is owned by the Delivery Team
    • If the Information Container is produced by Appointed Party, before the acceptance by the Lead Appointed Party, the Information is owned by the Appointed Party. After the acceptance, it is owned by the Lead Appointed Party
    • After the Information Delivery is accepted, Information is owned by the Appointing Party

  • Information Management
    • To manage the process to ensure the required information is delivered correctly, on time, and up to the agreed standards
    • Information Management includes:
      1. Clearly specify the information requirements
      2. Select the right delivery team to produce and deliver
      3. Satisfy with delivery team’s BIM Execution Plan before appointment to ensure they are capable to delivery with capacity to take up the job
      4. Brief the task team to follow with the confirmed BIM Execution Plan in producing their deliverables

2023/12/06

【行業相關】建造業 - ABWF 常用中英辭彙對照表 Architectural Builder's Work and Finishes - Commonly Used Chinese and English Terms

總結的工作中常用的Architectural Builder's Work and Finishes (ABWF)中英辭彙對照表,歡迎補充。


  • Architect 建築師
  • Architectural drawing 建築設計圖(裝修則)
  • Back Sight 後視
  • Balcony 陽台(露台)
  • Bar 鋼筋(鐵)
  • Beam 樑(陣)
  • Benchmark 基準點
  • Bent
  • Blinding layer(B.L.) 墊層(草鞋底)
  • Boundary 界線
  • Brick wall 磚牆
  • Building service drawing 屋宇裝備圖
  • Cable Duct(C.D.) 電線槽
  • Cable Trench(C.T.) 電線坑
  • Caisson 沉箱
  • Caisson cap 沉箱帽
  • Canopy 簷篷
  • Cantilever beam 懸臂樑(趷雞陣)
  • Cantilever slab 懸臂樓面(趷雞樓面)
  • Cast iron 鑄鐵(生鐵)
  • Catchpit 隔沙井
  • Ceiling 天花板
  • Centre line 中線
  • Column
  • Concrete 混凝土(石矢)
  • Concrete Cover 混凝土保護層
  • Concrete curb 混凝土路緣,基仔(石矢基仔)
  • Construction Joint(C.J) 施工縫
  • Core Wall 核心牆
  • Cover 保護層,蓋冚
  • Curb 圍基,基仔
  • Cut off level 樁/沉箱頂平水,切口平水
  • Dado 護壁(傍水)
  • Detail 詳細圖,大樣圖
  • Door frame 門框
  • Drawing 圖則
  • Duct 1.槽 2.管道
  • Elevation 正視圖,立面圖(企身圖)
  • Emergency Vehicle Access 緊急汽車通道
  • End elevation/view 側視圖
  • Expansion joint(E.J.) 伸縮縫
  • Face left(FL) 正鏡
  • Face right(FR) 倒鏡
  • Fair face 清水
  • Fence wall 圍牆
  • Field book 記錄簿
  • Finish schedule 裝飾表 (泥水表)
  • Fixed window 梗窗
  • Floor beam 樓層樑(樓陣)
  • Floor drain(FD) 地台去水
  • Footpath 行人通路
  • Footing 地腳
  • Foresight 前視
  • Foul water 污水
  • Foundation 地基
  • Front elevation 前正視圖
  • G.I. pipes 鍍鋅鐵筒(鉛水筒)
  • Galvanized iron(G.I.) 鍍鋅鐵
  • Glazed tile 瓷磚
  • Gradient 斜度(斜水)
  • Grid ling 軸線(控制線)
  • Ground beam 地下樑(地腳陣)
  • Half-brick wall 單隅磚牆(半磚牆)
  • Handed by 反方向睇
  • Hardware 五金
  • Height of collimation 視線高
  • Height of instrument 儀器高
  • High tensile steel bar 'Y' 高拉力鋼筋(花鐵)
  • Horizontal Angle(HA) 水平角
  • Intermediate sight 中視
  • Invert bean 反陣
  • Invert level 行水位
  • Iron step of manhole 沙井腳踏
  • Isometric view 立體圖
  • Joint 接縫, 接駁, 接合, 結合
  • Lap length 相疊長度
  • Layout plan 分佈平面圖
  • Level 平水儀, 平水
  • Light-weight concrete 輕混凝土(輕石矢)
  • Lightwell 光井(通天)
  • Line
  • Lintel beam 邊樑(門頭陣)
  • Load-bearing wall 負力牆(風力牆)
  • Lot boundary 地段界線
  • Louver 百葉窗
  • Manhole 沙井
  • Manhole cover 沙井蓋
  • Movement joint(M.J.) 移動縫, 走動縫
  • Nosing 級咀
  • Opening 窿位(吼位)
  • Ordinance Bench Mark(OBM) 政府基準點
  • Parapet 矮牆(欄河)
  • Partition wall 間隔牆
  • Pile
  • Pile cap 樁帽(花籃)
  • Pipe 管,喉
  • Pipe duct 水管槽
  • Plan 平面圖
  • Post 柱仔
  • Precast R.C. 預制件(預制石矢)
  • Pump room 泵房
  • R.C. Hanger wall(H.W.) 石矢吊牆
  • Railing 欄杆
  • Ramp 斜路,斜面
  • Reat elevation 後/背正視圖
  • Reduced level(R.L.) 標高(平水值)
  • Reinforced concrete wall 鋼筋混凝土牆
  • Rise and fall method 升降式記載法
  • Riser 級高
  • Rock asphalt 石瀝青
  • Roof 天台
  • Round mild steel bar 'R' 圓鐵(光身鐵)
  • Scale 比例
  • Schedule 表錄
  • Section 剖面圖
  • Setting-out 開線
  • Shower 淋浴器(花洒)
  • Sile elevation/view 側視圖
  • Skirting 腳線,牆腳線
  • Slab 樓板,樓層,樓面
  • Slope 斜坡(斜水)
  • Slump test 塌度試驗
  • Staircase 樓梯
  • Stirrup 箍筋(陣絡)
  • Structural drawing 結構圖
  • Surface channel 明渠,無蓋明渠
  • Switch room 掣房
  • Tank 貯水箱
  • Temporary Bench Mark(TBM) 臨時基準點
  • Theodolite 經緯儀
  • Tie beam 拉樑(拉陣)
  • Tile
  • Total Station 全站儀(大鏡)
  • Transformer room 變壓器房(火牛房)
  • Tread 級面
  • Turning point(change point) 轉點
  • Vertical Angle(VA) 垂直角
  • Wall
  • Waterproofed 防水
  • Window schedule 窗表
  • Wired glass 鐵線玻璃
  • Working platform 工作台


2023/12/04

【高壓設計】 - 高壓電網故障電流計算(二)之計算方法及假設 - Fault Level Calculation for HV System (Part 2) - Assumption & Method

計算高壓故障電流時,一般有以下假設:

  • 短路前三相系統是正常運行情况下的接線方式,不考慮僅在切换過程中短時出現的接線方式;
  • 若電阻值少於電抗值的三份之一在多數情況下可忽略
  • 電容可忽略;
  • 機械的電抗可視作常數;
  • 發電電壓可假設為常數,並聯電容器可忽略;
  • 滙流排的阻抗、開關掣和電流互感器可忽略;
  • 短路電流波形假設是正弦波;
  • 短途輸電電纜的電阻可以忽略;(遠距離不可忽略)
  • 短路位置的阻抗可忽略;
  • 在短路持續時間內,短路相數不變。


計算故障電流的方法:

  1. 對於低壓(220/380V):一般采用實際單位制;
  2. 對於高壓(主要是針對有變壓器或者不同電壓等級的網絡):一般采用標麽制


高壓電網故障電流計算步驟及方法如下:

1. 用單線圖記下電纜,發電機和變壓器等設備的參數。

2. 選擇標麼制基值,轉換實際值為標麽值,100 MVA。

3. 用以下公式計算電纜,發電機和變壓器的電抗(或阻抗)的標麼值




4. 確認故障的種類,位置,及路径。

5. 把計算得的標麼值放在單線圖上

6. 從故障位置角度計算網路的等效電抗。

7. 用以下公式計算故障點的故障MVA。



8. 用以下公式計算故障電流。



舉例説明:

計算下圖故障位置的故障電流:


根據所提供的信息計算等效電抗並簡化電路,由於ACB常開,右側電路與fault無關,可以直接省略。

選擇MVA Base = 100 MVA。

高壓電網的電抗標麽值 = MVA Base / 電網 2000 MVA = 0.05 p.u.

132kV/11KV變壓器等效電抗標麽值 = 5% x 100 / 50 = 0.10 p.u.

11kV/380V變壓器等效電抗標麽值 = 4% x 100 / 2 = 2.00 p.u.  (Tx 3并不在fault path上, 故無用)

Genset等效電抗標麽值 = 2% x 100 / 2 = 1.00 p.u.

Motor等效電抗標麽值 = 2% x 100 / 1.5 = 1.33 p.u.

Other Load 1等效電抗標麽值 = 100 / 0.5  = 200 p.u.

Other Load 2等效電抗標麽值 = 100 / 2  = 50 p.u. (Load 2并不在fault path上, 故亦都無用)


進一步簡化電路,由於Load 1 也不在fault path上,進一步刪除Load 1。


合并等效電抗,Genset和Motor的電抗為并聯計算,進一步得到:


Z2, Z3, Z4串聯直接相加計算,進一步簡化得到:


最後一步等效電阻為并聯,因此最終縂等效電抗標麽值 (Equivalent Impedance):0.45 p.u.

該位置的故障大小為:100 MVA / 0.45 = 221.51 MVA, 故障電流為:336.55 kVA


具體計算式如下(點擊可以放大):


上面的應用例子只涉及到了變壓器,發電機等設備的等效電抗,而沒有計算高壓電纜的電抗。在實際應用中高壓電纜的電抗往往很小,對故障的計算影響甚小。但如果涉及到精確的保護器件的故障計算,電纜的阻抗也要考慮進去。